BOLT

QUESTION 1   

this is the cross section taken from pressure cylinder. A total of N bolt is to be used to resist a separating force of 160kN.

(a)  find the stiffness and constant C

(b)  find minimum number of bolts required using a factor of safety of 2 and accounting for the fact that the bolts may be reused when joint is taken preload?

Note : the size of bolt= M16 * 2 . The material of member E=79GPa. Flange area 1.5 times of diameter of bolt. And t=l/2.

, Proof strength, yield strength

Question 2

Two shafts are connected by means of a flange coupling to transmit torque 250Nm.

The flanges are fastened by four bolts of same material at radius of 30mm.

Find the standard size bolt if the allowable shear stress for the bolt material is 300MPa.

Question 3

Permissible shear stress for welds shown is 140MPa. For each case find the load F  that would cause such a shear stress

b

a

   

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ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its environment.

The organizational structure of an organization tells you the character of an organization and the values it believes in. Therefore, when you do business with an organization or getting into a new job in an organization, it is always a great idea to get to know and understand their organizational structure.

Any operating organization should have its own structure in order to operate efficiently. For an organization, the organizational structure is a hierarchy of people and its functions.

An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its environment

Depending on the organizational values and the nature of the business, organizations tend to adopt one of the following structures for management purposes

Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways. First, it provides the foundation on which standard operating procedures and routines rest. Second, it determines which individuals get to participate in which decision-making processes, and thus to what extent their views shape the organization’s actions.

An organization can be structured in many different ways, depending on their objectives. The structure of an organization will determine the modes in which it operates and performs.

Organizational Structure Types

Following are the types of organizational structures that can be observed in the modern business organizations.

Bureaucratic Structures

Bureaucratic structures maintain strict hierarchies when it comes to people management. There are three types of bureaucratic structures:

1 - Pre-bureaucratic structures

This type of organizations lacks the standards. Usually this type of structure can be observed in small scale, start-up companies. Usually the structure is centralized and there is only one key decision maker.

The communication is done in one-on-one conversations. This type of structures is quite helpful for small organizations due to the fact that the founder has the full control over all the decisions and operations.

2 - Bureaucratic structures

These structures have a certain degree of standardization. When the organizations grow complex and large, bureaucratic structures are required for management. These structures are quite suitable for tall organizations.

3 - Post-bureaucratic Structures

The organizations that follow post-bureaucratic structures still inherit the strict hierarchies, but open to more modern ideas and methodologies. They follow techniques such as total quality management (TQM), culture management, etc.

Functional Structure

The organization is divided into segments based on the functions when managing. This allows the organization to enhance the efficiencies of these functional groups. As an example, take a software company.

Software engineers will only staff the entire software development department. This way, management of this functional group becomes easy and effective.

Functional structures appear to be successful in large organization that produces high volumes of products at low costs. The low cost can be achieved by such companies due to the efficiencies within functional groups.

In addition to such advantages, there can be disadvantage from an organizational perspective if the communication between the functional groups is not effective. In this case, organization may find it difficult to achieve some organizational objectives at the end.

Divisional Structure

These types of organizations divide the functional areas of the organization to divisions. Each division is equipped with its own resources in order to function independently. There can be many bases to define divisions.

Divisions can be defined based on the geographical basis, products/services basis, or any other measurement.

As an example, take a company such as General Electrics. It can have microwave division, turbine division, etc., and these divisions have their own marketing teams, finance teams, etc. In that sense, each division can be considered as a micro-company with the main organization.

Matrix Structure

When it comes to matrix structure, the organization places the employees based on the function and the product.

The matrix structure gives the best of the both worlds of functional and divisional structures.

In this type of an organization, the company uses teams to complete tasks. The teams are formed based on the functions they belong to (ex: software engineers) and product they are involved in (ex: Project A).

This way, there are many teams in this organization such as software engineers of project A, software engineers of project B, QA engineers of project A, etc.

Conclusion

Every organization needs a structure in order to operate systematically. The organizational structures can be used by any organization if the structure fits into the nature and the maturity of the organization.

In most cases, organizations evolve through structures when they progress through and enhance their processes and manpower. One company may start as a pre-bureaucratic company and may evolve up to a matrix organization.

The Primary Elements of TQM

Total quality management can be summarized as a management system for a customer-focused organization that involves all employees in continual improvement. It uses strategy, data, and effective communications to integrate the quality discipline into the culture and activities of the organization.

• Customer-focused. The customer ultimately determines the level of quality. No matter what an organization does to foster quality improvement—training employees, integrating quality into the design process, upgrading computers or software, or buying new measuring tools—the customer determines whether the efforts were worthwhile.

• Total employee involvement. All employees participate in working toward common goals. Total employee commitment can only be obtained after fear has been driven from the workplace, when empowerment has occurred, and management has provided the proper environment. High-performance work systems integrate continuous improvement efforts with normal business operations. Self-managed work teams are one form of empowerment.
• Process-centered. A fundamental part of TQM is a focus on process thinking. A process is a series of steps that take inputs from suppliers (internal or external) and transforms them into outputs that are delivered to customers (again, either internal or external). The steps required to      carry out the process are defined, and performance measures are continuously monitored in order to detect unexpected variation.
• Integrated system. Although an organization may consist of many different functional specialties often organized into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes interconnecting these functions that are the focus of TQM.
• Micro-processes add up to larger processes, and all processes aggregate into the business processes required for defining and implementing strategy. Everyone must understand the vision, mission, and guiding principles as well as the quality policies, objectives, and critical processes of the organization. Business performance must be monitored and communicated continuously.
• An integrated business system may be modeled after the Baldrige National Quality Program criteria and/or incorporate the ISO 9000 standards. Every organization has a unique work culture, and it is virtually impossible to achieve excellence in its products and services unless a good quality culture has been fostered. Thus, an integrated system connects business improvement elements in an attempt to continually improve and exceed the expectations of customers, employees, and other stakeholders.
• Strategic and systematic approach. A critical part of the management of quality is the strategic and systematic approach to achieving an organization’s vision, mission, and goals. This process, called strategic planning or strategic management, includes the formulation of a strategic plan that integrates quality as a core component.
• Continual improvement. A major thrust of TQM is continual process improvement. Continual improvement drives an organization to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to become more competitive and more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations.
• Fact-based decision making. In order to know how well an organization is performing, data on performance measures are necessary. TQM requires that an organization continually collect and analyze data in order to improve decision making accuracy, achieve consensus, and allow prediction based on past history.
• Communications. During times of organizational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation, effective communications plays a large part in maintaining morale and in motivating employees at all levels. Communications involve strategies, method, and timeliness.

These elements are considered so essential to TQM that many organizations define them, in some format, as a set of core values and principles on which the organization is to operate.

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OBJECTS

i.              An addition which would be nearer to any highway than the nearest part of the original house unless there is at least 20 m between the extended house and the highway.

ii.             Covering more than half the area of land around the original house with additions or other separate buildings.

iii.            An extension to a terrace house or a house in a Special Area larger than 10 per cent, or up to 50 m3, whichever is greater, of the volume of the original house.

iv.           An extension to any other kind of house larger than 15 percent, or up to 70 m3, whichever is greater, of the volume of the original house.

v.            An extension which is larger than 115 m3

vi.           An extension which is higher than the highest part of the roof of the original house.

vii.          An extension where any part is more than 4 m high (except roof extensions) and is within 2 m of the property boundary.

viii.         Any roof extension, loft conversion or dormer window in a Special Area

ix.           Any extension to a roof slope which faces a highway.

x.            Roof extensions which would add more than 50 m3 to the volume of the house or 40 m3 to that of a terraced house.

This allowance is not in addition to, but must be deducted from, any other allowances set out above.

Sometimes generation of built up object is the minor object which support the main building in term of three dimensional geometry is called listed building

Listed building a building of recognized historical or cultural value which has official protected status against demolition, modification and disrepair

A Listed Building includes the exterior and interior of the building and, with some exceptions, any object or structure within the curtilage of the building, including garden walls.

Listed Building Consent is needed to demolish a Listed Building, or part of one, or to alter or extend it in any way inside or out which would affect its architectural or historic character.

Buildings Separate new

On the land around the house

i.              Any building (or structure) to be used other than for domestic purposes or which exceeds conditions set out in 9 and 10 above.

ii.             Any building more than 3 m high, or 4 m high if it has a ridged roof.

iii.            Any building in the grounds of a Listed Building or in a Special Area which would be more than 10 m3

iv.           A storage tank for heating oil larger than 3500 litres or more than 3 m above ground.

v.            A tank to store liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

Erecting fences, walls and gates

i.              If a house is a Listed Building.

ii.             If over 1 m high where next to a road or over 2 m elsewhere.

New cladding

 Cladding the outside of the house with stone, tiles, artificial stone, plastic or timber in a Special Area.

Building a porch

i.              With an area measured externally of more than 3 m

ii.             Higher than 3 m above ground.

iii.            Less than 2 m from a road.

Erecting a satellite dish or antenna

Other than normal TV or radio aerials

i.              If the size exceeds 700 mm in any direction (900 mm in some outlying areas) or 450 mm if attached to a chimney.

ii.             If it projects above the roof or chimney to which it is attached.

iii.            If it is in addition to another antenna already installed, whether or not this has planning consent.

iv.           If it is installed on a chimney or on the wall or roof slope facing a highway in a Special Area.

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THE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS

1.      People Face Tradeoffs

o    To get one thing, we usually have to give up something else

§  Ex. Leisure time vs. work

2.      The Cost of Something is What You Give Up to Get It

o    Opportunity cost is the second best alternative foregone.

§  Ex. The opportunity cost of going to college is the money you could have earned if you used that time to work.

3.      Rational People Think at the Margin

o    Marginal changes are small, incremental changes to an existing plan of action

§  Ex. Deciding to produce one more pencil or not

o    People will only take action of the marginal benefit exceed the marginal cost

4.      People Respond to Incentives

o    Incentive is something that causes a person to act. Because people use cost and benefit analysis, they also respond to incentives

§  Ex. Higher taxes on cigarettes to prevent smoking

5.      Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off

o    Trade allows countries to specialize according to their comparative advantages and to enjoy a greater variety of goods and services

6.      Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity

o    Adam Smith made the observation that when households and firms interact in markets guided by the invisible hand, they will produce the most surpluses for the economy

7.      Governments Can Sometimes Improve Economic Outcomes

o    Market failures occur when the market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Governments can step in and intervene in order to promote efficiency and equity.

8.      The Standard of Living Depends on a Country's Production

o    The more goods and services produced in a country, the higher the standard of living. As people consume a larger quantity of goods and services, their standard of living will increase

9.      Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Money

o    When too much money is floating in the economy, there will be higher demand for goods and services. This will cause firms to increase their price in the long run causing inflation.

10. Society Faces a Short-Run Tradeoff Between Inflation and Unemployment

o    In the short run, when prices increase, suppliers will want to increase their production of goods and services. In order to achieve this, they need to hire more workers to produce those goods and services. More hiring means lower unemployment while there is still inflation. However, this is not the case in the long-run.

A trade-off (or tradeoff) is a situation that involves losing one quality or aspect of something in return for gaining another quality or aspect. More colloquially, if one thing increases, some other thing must decrease. Trade-offs can occur for many reasons, including simple physics (e.g., into a given amount of space, you can fit many small objects or fewer large objects). The idea of a trade-off often implies a decision to be made with full comprehension of both the upside and downside of a particular choice, such as when a person decides whether to invest in stocks (riskier, but greater potential return) versus bonds (generally safer, but lower potential returns). The term is also used widely in an evolutionary context, in which case natural selection and sexual selection act as the ultimate "decision-makers".

Trade-offs in economics

In economics the term is expressed as opportunity cost, referring to the most preferred alternative given up. A trade-off, then, involves a sacrifice that must be made to obtain a certain product, service or experience, rather than others that could be made or obtained using the same required resources. For a person going to a basketball game, their opportunity cost is the money and time expended, as compared with the alternative of watching a particular television program at home. Many factors affect the trade-off environment within a particular country, including availability of raw materials, a skilled labor force, machinery for producing a product, technology and capital, market rate to produce that product on reasonable time scale, and so forth.

In computer science, trade-offs are viewed as a tool of the trade. A program can often run faster if it uses more memory (a space-time tradeoff). Consider the following examples:

• By compressing an image, you can reduce transmission time/costs at the expense of CPU time to perform the compression and decompression. (Another aspect of this trade-off is the loss in image quality, which is more apparent when the image is viewed at larger sizes.)
• By using a lookup table, you may be able to reduce CPU time at the expense of space to      hold the table, e.g. to determine the parity of a byte you can either look at each bit individually (using shifts and masks), or use a 256-entry table giving the parity for each possible bit-pattern, or combine the upper and lower nibbles and use a 16-entry table.
• For some situations (e.g. string manipulation), a compiler may be able to use inline code for greater speed, or call run-time routines for reduced memory; the user of the compiler should be able to indicate whether speed or space is more important.

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MARANDO: Poll THE CONSTITUTION IS A secret meeting the next general election.....................

MEMBER of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said the referendum polling Constitution proposed is one of the secret meeting of the general elections in the u.MJUMBE of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said the referendum polling Constitution InayopendekezwMJUMBE of the Central Committee of Chadema , Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing referendum proposed Constitution is one of the secret meeting of this year's general election.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to the secret meeting politically because it will bring serious complaints country nzima.a is one of the secret meeting of general elections this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon MESSENGER consultant of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing Constitutional referendum is one of the secret meeting proposed a general election this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to the secret meeting politically because it will bring serious complaints country nzima.zoezi the ballot because it has benefits for This year, it's only secret meeting next general election, "he said.
MEMBER of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing Constitutional referendum is one of the secret meeting proposed a general election this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well kuacMJUMBE consultant of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing Constitutional referendum is one of the secret meeting proposed a general election this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to the secret meeting politically because it will bring serious complaints country nzima.hana and the exercise of the vote because it contains profit for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.
Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza session only one budget, so it is not easy session that the amendment of laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he sema.MJUMBE of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing referendum proposed Constitution is one of the secret meeting of this year's general election.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.

MEMBER of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said the referendum polling Constitution proposed is one of the secret meeting of the general elections in the u.MJUMBE of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said the referendum polling Constitution InayopendekezwMJUMBE of the Central Committee of Chadema , Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing referendum proposed Constitution is one of the secret meeting of this year's general election.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to the secret meeting politically because it will bring serious complaints country nzima.a is one of the secret meeting of general elections this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon MESSENGER consultant of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing Constitutional referendum is one of the secret meeting proposed a general election this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to the secret meeting politically because it will bring serious complaints country nzima.zoezi the ballot because it has benefits for This year, it's only secret meeting next general election, "he said.
MEMBER of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing Constitutional referendum is one of the secret meeting proposed a general election this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well kuacMJUMBE consultant of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing Constitutional referendum is one of the secret meeting proposed a general election this year.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to the secret meeting politically because it will bring serious complaints country nzima.hana and the exercise of the vote because it contains profit for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.
Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza session only one budget, so it is not easy session that the amendment of laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he sema.MJUMBE of the Central Committee of Chadema, Bere Nyaucho Marando said ringing referendum proposed Constitution is one of the secret meeting of this year's general election.
Marando spoke to this newspaper yesterday when asked his opinion about this vote expected to hit 30 April this year nationwide.

"First nawashangaa the presidential advisors, the consultant how to declare the day of the vote before the registration process reviewed voters not done? It could well abandon the exercise consultant ballot because it has benefits for the year, is just a secret meeting next general election, "he said.

Marando professional who is a lawyer, said legal if the referendum is approved it must return to parliament to ikarekebishwe some rules such as an independent candidate or election law that movement is allowed to start working after the return of the president to authorize the signature aitie used.

"We all know that the parliament limebakiza only one budget session, so it is not easy to adjust the session that the laws derived from the Constitution proposed by the reality is that even if the reality can not be used in the next general election," he said.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.

Marando who is an advocate of the High Court said: "This is a dirty tricks to discourage voters as during the general election if you came and demanded a constitution to be adopted is this old, be discouraged so stop emerging vote aimed trunks of CCM fulfilled," he said Marando.

Asked what he would suggest in that said priority kingepewa on voter registration because even if the government does not have money for this purpose, it is easy to be supported by donors due to the sensitivity of the matter.

He added that it is dangerous to ignore the practice of registering to vote because it would be a bad thing if a person who has attained the age of voting will be denied that opportunity due to political secret meeting because it will bring serious complaints nationwide.

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BUILDING PRODUCTION LESSON ONE

Building production

is the organization and management of the plans, equipment, materials and labour involved in the construction of a building, while at the same time complying with all codes, rules and contractual stipulations.

The procedure should be designed to run efficiently, to keep the costs low and to allow returns on the investment to be realized as early as possible.

Industrialised Building

a technique of construction where by components are manufactured in a controlled environment, either at site or off site, placed and assembled into construction works.

Open Building

is an approach to the design of buildings that is recognized internationally to represent a new wave in architecture, but a new wave with roots in the way ordinary built environment grows, regenerates and achieves wholeness.

Rationalization of Production 

the process of improving the means and methods of social production in order to improve production efficiency. The rationalization of production includes an improvement in equipment, production processes, and the organization of labour, production, and management

The building production process

The building production commences when the client starts to seriously consider investing in a structure and does not end until the finished building is in use.

The process is divided into stages which follow in logical sequence. Each stage is terminated by a decision. See tables.

Methods of construction

The methods of constructing buildings refers to the way in which units and components of the building structure are produced and assembled. The manner of organizing this process differs from region to region and depends on the level of technology and the materials available. The following are methods of construction:-

1.     Traditional Building

In traditional building, forms of construction are those evolved by the traditional building crafts, particularly those of walling, roofing, plastering, carpentry and joinery. This method is a process of combining many small units. Most of the fabrication and assembly takes place at the site and usually in the position that the unit is to occupy in the completed structure. Within each tribal culture, traditional building results in structures that are similar but differing slightly, depending on the specific requirements and site.

2.     Post-traditional Building

The post-traditional or conventional method of building mixes traditional and new forms of construction, involving both the old crafts and newly developed techniques based on new materials. To some extent traditional building has always been in a state of change, but the introduction of Portland cement and mild steel has made it feasible to construct large and complex buildings and with this arises the need for efficient organization of the construction process.

The amount of on-site fabrication has been reduced by the introduction of prefabricated, factory-produced components, especially in the field of joinery and carpentry (windows, doors, cupboards, roof trusses, etc.). Reinforced concrete and preformed steel lend themselves to off-site fabrication of parts and only their assembly on site.

Post-traditional building varies from the traditional mainly in the scale of the work carried out and in the use of expensive machinery for many operations. The use of prefabricated, standardized components reduces the amount of skilled labour, but at the same time reduces the freedom of the designer in meeting varying design requirements.

3.     System Building

System building is a method in which most of the building's component parts are factory-produced and siteassembled.

The main advantages in system building are the possibilities for efficient factory production of large numbers of similar building elements and the reduced period of time necessary for assembly at the site.

A disadvantage with this method is the high level of accuracy required for setting out and foundation work since the nature of the components and the principles of the system are such that mistakes are difficult to correct during the assembly process. The components (e.g., wall, floor, ceiling and roof elements) are usually related to a specific building type, such as houses, schools or warehouses or to a restricted range of types. The design of buildings produced by this method is inflexible and limits the possibility of adjusting to specific requirements at a certain site or to a local building tradition.

The methods of System Building through Prefabrication

Prefabrication is the manufacture of building components either on-site (but not in-situ) or off-site in a factory. The use of prefabricated components can reduce the need for skilled labour at the site, simplify construction by reducing the number of separate operations, and facilitate continuity in the remaining operations. However, prefabs are not necessarily timesaving or economical in the overall construction project. For example, the use of prefabricated lintels may save formwork and result in continuity in the bricklaying work, but would be uneconomical if a lifting crane is required at the site to place them, when it is not required for any other purpose on the job.

-On-site Prefabrication

On-site prefabrication may be of advantage where a number of identical components such as roof-trusses, doors, windows, gates and partitions are required. Once a mould or prototype has been made by a skilled craftsman, a number of identical components can be produced by less-skilled labour. Prefabrication of such items as roof-trusses will also make for more convenient and effective production than construction in-situ.

It is advantageous to prefabricate some concrete components. Components for elevated positions require simpler formwork if cast on the ground or in the ground so that the soil can be used to support the formwork. Prefabrication eliminates the waiting time for concrete components to harden sufficiently for subsequent on- site operations to continue, but the weight and size of concrete parts may make prefabrication impractical.

Local production by farmers of adobe bricks, burnt bricks, soil blocks, etc. is not normally referred to as prefabrication although similar planning and organization are required for the production of these units as for production of prefabricated building components.

-Off-sitePrefabrication

Factory production of components requires capital investment in machinery and premises, a high degree of organization of work, standardization and a steady demand for the products. Building components, which can be economically produced in a factory, essentially fall into three categories:

§  Those which have a high degree of standardization and are in great demand, so that mass production, utilizing the greater efficiency of modern factory production, is feasible, e.g., bricks, blocks, pipes, windows, doors and building hardware.

§  Those which incorporate materials or finishes that are exclusively or more efficiently produced with factory based techniques, e.g., metal components, plastic items, galvanized items and baked-paint finishes.

§  Those which make use of new factory-based techniques and machines, e.g., laminated-wood beams, prestressed concrete beams and insulated-sandwich panels.

Component production and dimensional co-ordination

In order to limit the variety in size of similar components, to facilitate their assembly at the site, and to make them interchangeable between different manufacturers, building components are manufactured in standardized dimensions based on an accepted system of dimensional coordination. Such preferred dimensions are given in standards together with specifications for minimum requirements of technical performance. When the experience gained in factory production of components increases, the technique will be applied to components of increasing size and complexity (e.g., wholly finished wall elements) and this will increase the need for dimensional coordination.

One system of dimensional coordination uses the international basic building module of 100mm. The reference system establishes a three-dimensional grid of basic modules, or very often multi-modules of 300mm, into which the components ft.

The modular grid does not give the size of the component but does allow space for it. In order for the component to fit correctly, it will always be slightly smaller than the space allowed for it. The system must allow for some inaccuracy in the manufacturing process and changes in size due to changing temperature and moisture conditions.

This is expressed as a tolerance in size. For example,

a window which is allowed a basic size of 1200mm for its width is produced with a working size of 1190mm and a manufacturing tolerance of 5mm, which is expressed as 1190 + 5mm. The actual dimension of a window delivered to the site would be somewhere between 1185mm and 1195mm. The joint would be designed to take these deviations into account.

Modular-size concrete blocks are 290mm long and modular format bricks are 190 x 90 x 40 or 90mm actual size to allow for 10mm mortar joints and plaster.

 The actual size of openings will then be 1220mm. In this process the designer has a responsibility to specify tolerances that can be achieved with available craftsmen and factories. It will be easier to fit factory produced window and door casements, which are made to standard modular sizes, if these sizes are also used when bricks and blocks are manufactured locally.

The common brick size of 215 x 102.5 x 65mm allows for laying four coarses to 300mm vertically and four brick lengths to 900mm horizontally, if 10mm joints are used. See figure attached for dimensional of a window of its width being 1200 mm

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